Friday, September 6, 2019
The Jewish Role in Bolshevik Revolution Essay Example for Free
The Jewish Role in Bolshevik Revolution Essay The vast territory of the Russian Empire at one time hosted the largest Jewish population. Within these territories, the Jewish communities flourished, and developed many new theologies and cultural traditions in spite of facing terrible persecutions (â€Å"History of Jews†). The Czars of Russia competed with each other in persecuting the Jews. The Jews were made scapegoats for all the economic and social problems of Russia. The Bolshevik revolution put an end to the Tsarist Regime. Jewish role in Bolshevik revolution is not a new theme. There is extensive literature in English, French, and German reflecting the argument that Bolshevik revolution is a Jewish conspiracy. (Sutton) Those who try to prove that the revolution was non-Russian indicate Jewish names in an attempt to remove from the Russian people the blame of the revolution of 1917.On the other hand the Jewish scholars argue that the Bolshevik leadership which pre-dominantly Jewish was not Jews in spirit.(Solzhenitsyn). However, by that logic, leading Russian Bolsheviks were also not Russian in spirit. Therefore, what exactly was the role of Jews in Bolshevik revolution? Can they be blamed for the revolution? Was there a Jewish conspiracy? What attracted them en masse toward the Bolshevik party? Let us start with the History of Jews in Russia. The History of Jews in Russia. Records exist from fourth century showing that Jews inhabited the cities of Armenia and that there were substantial Jewish settlements in Crimea. Under the influence of these Jews, the ruling class of Khazaria adapted Judaism. After the overthrow of the Khazarian Kingdom, the Jews fled to Crimea and Russian principality of Kiev. In the 11th and 12th century, the Jews appeared to have occupied a separate quarter in Kiev called the Jewish Town. At this time, Jews were also found in northeastern Russia (Hein).     Though Russia had few Jews, countries to its west were unleashing anti-Semitic pogroms. Expelled en masse from England, France, Spain, and persecuted in Germany, Jews migrated to friendly state of Polish controlled parts of Eastern Europe. The Polish ruler, Casimir III invited the Jews to settle there as a third estate, performing commercial and middleman services between the King and the Nobility. The Jews performed the function of tax collecting, money lending, estate management, and trade. After settling in Russia, they extended to Ukraine and Lithuania, which would later become part of the Russian Empire (â€Å"History of Jews†).      In 14th Century, the Lithuanians granted more privileges to the Jews. From Lithuania, they migrated to portions of western Russia. Between 16th to 18th centuries, the Jews entered Russia either illegally or with the permission of Polish or Lithuanians, as they were involved in trade (Hein). Tsarist Russia.      The Tsarist regime started the Jewish persecutions in Russia. Muscovite Russia became a very hostile environment for the Jewish people. The treatment of Jews was harsh in the reign of Ivan IV, The Terrible. For example, after his conquest of Polotsk some 300 Jews who refused to be converted to Christianity were drowned in Dvina. Jews were not tolerated in the area of Muscovy. From 1716, the policies of the Imperial Russian were openly anti-Semitic (â€Å"History of Jews†) The Pale of Settlement      In order to keep the Jews out of Russia, the Tsars established a Pale of Settlement, which included Poland and Crimea. The Jews were supposed to remain in the Pale. They needed special permission to move to Russia proper. Pogroms.      Pogroms were mob violence against the Jews. In Czarist Russia, the number of pogroms unleashed against the Jews was numerous that it is impossible to count them. These pogroms were often organized and incited (Spiro).The Czars organized the pogroms in order to divert the public attention from corruption and allow the masses to let off the steam. Jews were perfect scapegoats for economic problems of Russia. Problems of Russia had nothing to do with the Jews. The problems were total backwardness, highly corrupt and autocratic regime, and poverty. Whenever the public discontentment grew, the Czars organized a Pogrom to divert attention (Spiro).      It is arguable which of the Russian Czars was the worst to the Jews(Spiro).Let us start with Nicholas I. Czar Nicholas I (1825-1855) sought to destroy all Jewish life in Russia. His period was a painful part of European Jewish history. He ordered the conscription of Jewish youth to the military from the age of 12 and they were forced to serve in the military for 25 years (Hein). The youngsters were kidnapped, never to be seen again. Some Jewish parents were so desperate that they would cut off the index finger of their sons in order to escape the conscription (Spiro). The Jews who were not taken into military were expelled from their towns and villages. He divided the Jews as â€Å"useful†and â€Å"not useful.†The wealthy merchants involved in trade were considered as useful and others as not useful. A law was instituted prohibiting Jews from wearing traditional dresses (Hein).      Alexander II (1855-1881) brought to end the harsh treatment of Jews. He implemented new policies for the assimilation of Jews. The Jews moved out of their settlements. Those having Russian secondary school education were given greater rights. This led to many Jews enrolling themselves in Russian schools .Emancipation of Jews began slowly. There was greater visibility of Jewish activities. This increased the anger of non-Jewish communities. The increased competition resulted in the formation of Jewish proletariat and a small Jewish upper class. Many Jews entered new professions (Hein)       In 1881, Alexander II was assassinated and the situation for the Jews deteriorated. The Jews were blamed for the assassination. Thousands of Jewish homes were burned; large numbers of men, women, and children were killed. Families were reduced to a state of poverty (Hein).      The new Czar Alexander III blamed the Jews for riots. He escalated anti-Semitism by depicting the Jews as ‘Christ killers’ and oppressors of Christians. He organized one pogrom after another to keep the anger of the masses focused on the Jews. He promulgated a series laws against the Jews. These Laws were called the May laws (Spiro). He passed restrictions in Jewish landownership and prohibited Jews from living in villages. The state enforced anti-Semitic policies with waves of pogroms, which spread through the villages. These were carried out with the tacit knowledge of the government and the police supporting it. Strict restrictions banned Jews from practicing many professions. The number of Jews studying in schools was curtailed. In 1886, an Edit of Expulsion was enforced on Jews of Kiev. Moscow was ‘cleansed’ of its Jews, except a handful who were deemed ‘useful’. Alexander justified these repressive practices with these words: â€Å"But we must never forget that the Jews have crucified our Master and have shed his precious blood†(â€Å"History of Jews†).     The persecutions resulted in many Jews emigrating to other countries. More than two million fled Russia. Vast majority emigrated to United States. Some of them turned to political activism and Zionism (Hein).      When Nicholas II took over the situation deteriorated further. Pogroms become a government policy. During his tenure one of the most famous pogrom was organized in Kishinev, 1903.This pogrom received international attention. New York Times reported: It is impossible to account the amounts of goods destroyed in a few hours. The hurrahs of the rioting. The pitiful cries of the victims filled the air. Wherever a Jew was met, he was savagely beaten into insensibility. One Jew was dragged from a streetcar and beaten until the mob thought he was dead. The air was filled with feathers and torn bedding. Every Jewish household was broken into and the unfortunate Jews in their terror endeavored to hide in cellars and under roofs. The mob entered the synagogue, desecrated the biggest house of worship, and defiled the Scrolls of the Law. The conduct of the intelligent Christians was disgraceful. They made no attempt to check    the rioting. They simply walked around enjoying the frightful sport (qtd.in Spiro).      From 1903-1907 the level of violence was unbelievable. There were 284 pogroms and casualties exceeded 50000 (Spiro).      Thus, the Jews who migrated to Russia with a hope of living in peace were driven to despair by the atrocities of the Tsarist regime. The Jewish community was devastated. People were looking for a way out. They joined the ranks of radical Russians in large numbers. The leaders of socialists, J.Martov and L.Trotsky were Jewish (Hein). The centuries of oppression led to the polarization of Jews and drove them to radicalism. They were desperate to make things better (Spiro). Socialism and Radicalism.      The last 20 years of the czarist regime were a time of tension and renaissance for the Jews, especially within the younger circles. This awakening essentially stemmed from conscious resistance to, and rejection of, the oppressive regime, the degrading status of the Jew in the country, and the search for methods for change. One response to the oppressive policy of the czarist government was to join one of the trends of the Russian revolutionary movement. The radical Jewish youth joined clandestine organizations in the towns of Russia and abroad. Many Jews ranked among the leaders of the revolutionaries. The leaders of the Social Democrats included J. Martov and L. Trotsky, while Ch. Zhitlowski and G. A. Gershuni figured among the founders of the Socialist Revolutionary Party of Russia (Berdichev). With the growth of national consciousness in revolutionary circles at the close of the 19th century, a Jewish workers revolutionary movement was formed. Workers unions, which had been founded through the initiative of Jewish intellectuals, united and established the Bund in 1897. The Bund played an important role in the Russian revolutionary movement in the Pale of Settlement. It regarded itself as part of the all-Russian Social-Democratic Party but gradually came to insist upon certain national demands such as the right to cultural autonomy for the Jewish masses, recognition of Yiddish as the national language of the Jews, the establishment of schools in this language, and the development of the press and literature. The Bund was particularly successful in Lithuania and Poland, where after a short time it raised the social status of the worker and the apprentice, and implanted in them the courage to stand up to their employers and the authorities.(Berdichev) The misery of common people.      The underlining cause of Russian revolution is deep rooted in the history. For centuries, autocratic and repressive czarist regime ruled the country, while majority of population lived in utter poverty, economically and socially backward (â€Å"Russia 1917-1941†).      In 1900, approximately 110 million people lived in Russia, 97 million of which were peasants and three million were industrial workers. Russia was socially and economically backward as compared to other countries like USA, Great Britain, and France. Large majority of Russians were peasants, who lived on the dependency of soil and aristocracy. The peasantry was growing rapidly and there was great demand for land, which was in the hands of aristocracy (â€Å"Russia 1917-1941†).      Nicholas II ruled with an iron hand. The powerful sections of the society: the aristocrats, the Church, the Bureaucracy, the police and the Russian army maintained their traditional loyalty towards the Monarch. Each of these powerful elites was interested in maintaining their status and welfare. The Government was inefficient. The Tsar, Nicholas II insisted on reading every degree, which delayed the administrative decision for months. The army had been recently defeated in the war against Japan and police was chaotic. The economy was backward. The peasants were driven to misery and the food production was low. In places where industry was developing, the living conditions were so awful that the workers were angry and rebellious (â€Å"Russia 1917-1941†).     The First World War increased the existing discontentment. The war took men from the fields to the front. Railway system was clogged up so the people starved in towns. Prices rose and there was famine in 1916-1917.The Tsar took up the command over the military and the day today running of Russia was left in the hands of Tsarina who was very unpopular. The Tsarina was a German; she was overly influenced by a holy man, Rasputin. The aristocrats felt humiliated and the Church was scandalized. The Russian people lost confidence in the Romanovs (â€Å"Russia 1917-1941†).      In February, there was a general uprising. This was primarily over the lack of food and the way the war was fought. It was a spontaneous uprising. Women queuing for food joined the industrial workers sparked of the revolution. The soldiers who were sent to control the agitators joined the revolution. Tsar was forced to abdicate and a  provisional government was formed (â€Å"Russia 1917-1941†).      The Provisional government was made up of middle class politicians. They were not revolutionaries. They did not give land to the peasant and continued with war. They failed to bring in more foods into the towns. These two aspects created unrest among the public.      In April 1917, Lenin returned to Russia and promised people, Peace, Bread, and Land. This was what they wanted to hear. The Bolsheviks had catchy slogans like ‘All power to the Soviets’. By September 1917, 2 million people had joined the Bolsheviks (â€Å"Russia 1917-1941†).     The problems faced by the common people prior to the Bolshevik revolution were Shortage of food supply due to famine and war. Ruled by an autocratic regime. Awful living conditions of industry workers.     These conditions were similar to that of alienated Jews. However, apart from these problems the Jews faced intense anti-Semitic policies. The fear of impending pogroms made the life Jewish community miserable. A sense of alienation was prevailed among the Jews. The Jewish role in Bolshevik revolution.     There were many opposition parties existing during the last days of Nicholas II. The Liberals, Socialists, and Communists. The liberals wanted to establish a parliament like that of England. This group succeeded in establishing a Duma .But the Duma had no influence over the Tsar. The Socialists wanted a peasant revolution. The Communist wanted a working class revolution. The Communists were split among themselves, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov or Lenin led the Bolsheviks (Russia 1917-1945).       Many members of the Bolshevik were ethnically Jews especially in the leadership of the party. The rival party Mensheviks had higher Jewish representation. The idea of overthrowing the Tsarist regime was very attractive to the Jewish intelligentsia because of the centuries of oppression and suffering the Jewish community had undergone.       The role played by Jews especially, the Jewish intelligentsia can be inferred by analyzing the leadership of Bolsheviks. Virtually all of the important Bolshevik leaders were Jews: they included the father of the revolution, Leon Trotsky (whose real name was Lev Bronstein: in an attempt to hide his Jewish ness, he adopted the name Trotsky); Lev Kamenev, the early Bolshevik leader who later went on to become a leading member of the Politburo, was born with the surname Rosenfeld; Grigori Zinoviev, head of the Petrograd Soviet, was born with the surname Apfelbaum; and many other famous Communists of the time, such as Karl Radek, Lazar Kaganovich; and Moses Urtisky, (the head of the Cheka) who all changed their names for reasons similar to that of Trotsky(â€Å"Suppressed Link†). Leo Trotsky was the brain behind the Bolshevik revolution. Trotsky was to lead the revolution and unquestionably, without him it would not have happened. Trotsky arrived in Russia with a large number of international communists in order to carry out the revolution.      Two weeks prior to the October revolution, Lenin convened the Bolshevik party. The central committee took the decision to seize power by violent struggle. This committee consisted of predominantly Jews. There were four Russians, one Georgian (Stalin), one Pole and Six Jews. To monitor the take over, a committee was formed with majority Jewish. Trotsky was the chairperson of â€Å"Military Revolutionary Committee†which was to carry out the actual seizer of power. Therefore, all the committees set by the predominantly Jewish Bolshevik party had majority of Jews in them (Weber). The Bolshevik revolution is described by an American Jewish community paper as largely a product of Jewish thinking and Jewish discontent (Weber). Winston Churchill stated in an article published in February 8, 1920:              â€Å"There is no need to exaggerate the part played in the creation of Bolshevism and in the actual bringing about of the Russian Revolution by these international and for the most part atheistically Jews. It is certainly a very great one; it probably outweighs all others. With the notable exception of Lenin, the majority of the leading figures are Jews. Moreover, the principal inspiration and driving power comes from the Jewish leaders†(Weber). David R.Francis, United States ambassador in Russia wrote in a dispatch:               â€Å"The Bolshevik leaders here, most of whom are Jews and 90 percent of whom are returned exiles, care little for Russia or any other country but are internationalists and they are trying to start a worldwide social revolution†(Weber). A Us military officer, captain Montgomery Schulyer sent two telegrams to Washington in March and June 1919 emphatically states the role of Jews in Bolshevik revolution. The first report said:          â€Å"It is probably unwise to say this loudly in the United States but the Bolshevik movement is and has been since its beginning, guided and controlled by Russian Jews of the greasiest type†(â€Å"Jews and Communism†). The second report said of the,           â€Å"384 commissars there were 2 Negroes, 13 Russians, 15 Chinamen, 22 Armenians, and more than 300 Jews. Of the latter number 264 had come to Russia from the United States since the downfall of the Imperial Government†(â€Å"Jews and Communism†). Post revolution.      Although the Jews were less than five percentage of country’s total population, they played a decisive role in infant Bolshevik regime. With an exception of Lenin, Leon Trotsky headed the red army, Yakov Sverdlov was the head of the Soviet government, and Grigori Zinoviev headed the communist international. They were many other prominent Jews in the initial Bolshevik government. Lenin was a thorough internationalist. He viewed his own fellow citizens with contempt (Weber) He considered nationalism as opposed to internationalism.     In March 1919, Lenin delivered a speech on anti-Jewish pogroms. According to Lenin anti-Semitism was an attempt to divert workers hatred from the oppressors towards the Jews. It was a political trick employed by the Tsar to divert popular anger towards a scapegoat (Weber)       A small group of Bolsheviks having come to power needed bureaucracy to run the government. The Bolsheviks revolution was possible because of the large presence of Jewish intelligentsia. Therefore, the Bolsheviks called upon the Jews to take up bureaucratic work of the Soviet apparatus. Many Jews responded this call. Men of Jewish origin dominated Lenin’s first politburo. Majority of Jews who were non-revolutionary and apolitical joined the Bolsheviks. In order to encourage the Jews to join the Bureaucracy, the Bolsheviks organized a Jewish division of nationalities commissariat. The Bolsheviks rejected anti-Semitism and loosened civil restrictions on the Jews (Solzhenitsyn).       The Jews were predominant in all organs of the Bolshevik government. The central committee of the Bolshevik party had 41 Jews out of 62 members. The secret police had 23 out of 36, the Council of People’s Commissars (the Soviet Government) had 17 Jews out of 21.Out of 556 important functionaries of the Bolshevik state 457 were Jews (Weber). The Russian civil war.     Russia was thrust into a civil war from 1917 to 19121, between the Bolsheviks (Red army) and the anti-Bolsheviks (white army).Anti-Semitism spread widely. The white army targeted the Jews, killing huge numbers. The Red army clamped down on anti-Semitic attacks. This created sympathy for the Red army among the Jews. Jewish youth joined the Red army in huge number. The white army was filled with anti-Semitism. Their slogan was â€Å"Kill the Jews and save Russia.†Finally, white army was defeated and the civil war ended (â€Å"Russia 1917-1945†).      Jews retained their leading roles in Soviet society until growing anti-Semitism within the Communist Party itself led to a change in policy. Trotsky was the first major Jewish casualty: he split with Stalin over the issue of international socialism. A Stalinist agent in Mexico City assassinated him in 1940 (â€Å"Suppressed Link†)      Stalin started removing all important Jews from the Soviet Communist Party. He saw Zionism, the Jewish nationalism contrary to an international socialist brotherhood. Zionism was forbidden and Zionist organization was targeted for persecutions. Secular Jews were put in charge in order to spread hatred towards Jewish religion. Jewish communities were dissolved and their properties confusicated.Traditional institutes of Jewish culture and education were closed down. Those Jews who were not Zionist were left alone and achieved prominent places within the post -Stalin Soviet (â€Å"Suppressed link†). However, Stalin maintained policy of Lenin towards anti-Semitism. In a letter dated January 12, 1931, he declared his official position:             â€Å"Anti-Semitism is of advantage to the exploiters as a lightning conductor that deflects the blows aimed by the working people at capitalism. Anti-Semitism is dangerous for the working people as being a false path that leads them off the right road and lands them in the jungle†(qtd.in â€Å"History of Jews†). He declared anti-Semitism as a crime, which deserves death penalty. Despite the official Soviet opposition to anti-Semitism, critics of USSR view it as an anti-Semitic regime. The Soviet hostility towards Jewish religion, the huge casualties during the Great Purge, the non-aggressive pact with the Nazi appear to be anti-Semitic. However, this hostility was applied to all religions and ethnic group. This reveals the fact that Bolshevism has no connection with Judaism. The Soviet Union did grant official equality of all citizens regardless of sex, race, religion and nationality.     Many thousands of Jews however left Soviet Union with most settling in Israel and United States. The Jewish Intelligentsia and Bolshevism: The Socialist ideals were being formed in the Hebrew literature as early as 1820.In a monthly journal ‘visions of a mad man’ the early socialist Moris vinchevsky writes,               â€Å"Go and tell them that all people are brothers, that in nature there are no great and no little people, lords and slaves, rich and poor, that there is not a person in the world who could say, ‘I have the right to use the fruits of your work, the labors of other people’s hands’†(qtd.in Horowitz).     For members of the assimilated Jewish intelligentsia, participating in the socialist movement was often a method of social integration. The ideology, which stressed strong class divisions rather than ethnic ones, helped them avoid the identity problems associated with assimilation and discrimination. All socialist organizations had Jewish members (â€Å"Socialism and Jews†).The concept of international brotherhood as against nationalism attracted the Jewish intelligentsia     At the close of the 19th century, the Jewish proletariat increased and numbered some 600,000. Approximately half of them were apprentices and workers employed by craftsmen, about 100,000 were salesmen, about 70,000 were factory workers, and the remainder daily workers, porters, and domestics. The desire of this proletariat to improve its material and social status, and its contacts with the revolutionary Jewish intelligentsia during the generation, which preceded the 1917 Revolution, became an important factor in the lives of the Jews of Russia (â€Å"Socialism and Jews†).     The Bolsheviks believed in organizing the party in a strongly centralized hierarchy that sought to overthrow the Tsar and achieve power. Although the Bolsheviks were not completely monolithic, they were characterized by a rigid adherence to the leadership of the central committee, based on the notion of democratic centralism. The Bolsheviks took an internationalist stance that emphasized solidarity between the workers of Russia, Germany, and the rest of the world. The philosophy of Bolsheviks was based on Marxism. Lenin was guided by a spirit of internationalism. According to him nationalism did not exist and must not exist, and that the question of nationalism divided revolutionary from reactionary socialism (â€Å"Bolsheviks†) Jewish Chronicle published in London stated,          â€Å"There is much in the fact of Bolshevism itself, in the fact that so many Jews are Bolshevists. The ideals of Bolshevism are consonant with many of the highest ideals of Judaism.†(qtd.in Weber).An American Bulletin carried the words of Rabbi S.Wise, â€Å"Some call it Marxism I call it Judaism†(qtd.in Weber)     The socialist philosophy of the Bolsheviks, which was based on Marxism appealed to the Jewish intelligentsia. The spirit of internationalism, solved the problem of nationalism in an alien land. The promise of bread and equality of the proletariat solved the problem of poverty. The stand taken by the Bolsheviks against anti-Semitism gave them the dream of security. Role of Western Jews.     The Bolshevik revolution is seen by some as a Jewish conspiracy worldwide. However, this is not entirely true. In Britain the 300000 strong Jewish communities was a recent immigration from Russia. For the indigenous Anglo-Jewry, the fate of a fellow diaspora community could no longer be distant concern. The mass immigration brought the problem to their doorstep. For the immigration, Jews political interest in Russia was not a mere academic concern but it was mixed with sentimental attachment and close family ties. It was limited to relief work, philanthropy, and diplomacy. Relief funds were collected for people affected by pogroms. Lucien Wolf the defacto foreign secretary of Anglo-Jewry engaged in diplomatic activities with British government and at League of Nations (Khadish). However, there was no involvement by the British Jews in the Bolshevik revolution.     In United States, millionaire Jews extended financial support to Bolshevik revolution. A group of wealthy Jews and Jewish firms extended financial support to Trotsky. Jacob Henry Schiff, an investment banker was one of the main financiers. Jacob Schiff was a partner in Wall Street banking house of khuhn, Loeb and company. He was an active member in most Jewish charitable organizations and lobbied for the Jewish interest. He and other Jewish leaders successfully persuaded the federal Government to direct official remonstrance to Russia on behalf of human rights of Jews there. Leo Trotsky was given $20 million for the success of the revolution (Best). On March 1917, Trotsky left along with the communist revolutionaries Jacob Schiff and Paul Warburg helped him to reach Russia. Paul Warburg who was vice chairperson of Federal Reserve board handled large sums furnished by the Germans for Lenin and Trotsky. Rothchilds, the banking dynasty of Jewish origin, Olaf Aschberg, a Jewish banker, another Jewish financier Jovotovsky were some of the wealthy Jews who financed the Bolshevik Revolution(Rivera) Though, there was communication passing between the Jewish leaders in America, Germany, France and Britain, there is no hard empirical truth that western Jews conspired together for a Bolshevik revolution (Sutton). Conclusion.     Jewish hatred for Tsarist regime had a basis in objective conditions. Of the leading European powers, Imperial Russia was most anti-Jewish. What else can we expect from centuries of oppression and suffering? However understandable, and perhaps even defensible, Jewish hostility toward the imperial regime may have been, the remarkable Jewish role in the vastly more despotic Soviet regime is less easy to justify (Weber). Sonya Margolina, a Russian born Jewish writer calls it a â€Å"historical sin†She points to the role of Jewish communists in labor camps and the systematic destruction of churches by the Jewish communists (Weber). Neverthless,it cannot be concluded that Bolshevik revolution was Jewish consiparcy.The Jewish Bolshevik leaders like Trotsky had nothing in common with the people of Pale settlement. The Bolshevik Party had many Jews holding important posts. However, there were many Non-Jews holding important posts for example, Lunacharsky, Bukharin, Kirov, Beria, Molotov, â€Å"Iron Felix†Dzerzhinsky (founder of the KGB), Kalinin (First Soviet President), many others. Whatever their religious or ethnic background the Bolsheviks were essentially atheists who hated all religious and ethnic categories. When they came to power, the Bolsheviks burned down the synagogues and killed the Rabbis as much as they did it to the Christians (Spiro).     Original Bolsheviks received funds from bankers. Some of them were Jews and many of them non-Jews. The Germans who wanted to weaken Russia did the main funding (â€Å"Stanford University†).     In the first days after October revolution made great effort to hunt down Jews for use in the state bueracracy.This is not out of the love they had for the Jews but for the abilities of the Jews. They did the same to Latvians, Hungarians, and Chinese (Solzhenitsyn). Some anti-Semites pick up some prominent Bolsheviks and claim that they were Jews. Trotsky was a Jew.However,he was one of the early critics of Stalin and  his criticisms cost him his life. There were many Jews in the leadership of Bolshevik party. As Aristotle says, â€Å"One swallow does not a summer make†(qtd.in Green), we cannot say all Jews in Russia were Bolsheviks.     We can conclude, therefore, that it is wrong to blame a single ethnicity for the crime of few individuals. We cannot blame all Germans for the Holocaust. Similarly, we cannot blame that Georgians are responsible for the atrocities of Stalin. Guilt should be assigned individually not collectively. Bolshevik revolution was a class struggle and nothing to do with ethnicity and religion (Green).                                                                Works Cited Best,Gary â€Å"Sciff ,Jacob Henry†The Online Handbook of Texas.6 June,2001.Texas State       Historical Association.10 April,2007 http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online//aricle/SS/fsc53.html       httpp://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/SS/fsc53.html  â€Å"Bolsheviks.†Wikipedia.2007 Answer.com 5April 2007.       http://www.answers.com/topic/bolshevik â€Å"Communism and the Jews†. World Association of International studies.5 April 2005. Stanford        University, California.8 April 2007http://cgi.stanford.edu/group/wais/cgi-         bin/index.php?p=1082 Green,Richard.â€Å"The Bolshevik Canard†. The Holocaust History Project. July 2000.8 April 2007          http://www.holocaust-history.org/bolshevik-canard/ Hein, Avi. â€Å"The Jewish Virtual History Tour, Russia.†Jewish Virtual Library.2007.TheAmerican          IsraelcooperativeEnterprise.http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/russia.html Horowitz, Brian.Rev.ofâ€Å"Great Russian-Jewish Historians,†ed.Lokshin.A.V.C.Menorah Review           14 September 2005.5 April 2007. http://menorahreview.org.aspx?id=17 â€Å"History of Jews in Russia and Soviet Union†.AllExperts 2006.6 April 2007.     http://en.allexperts.com/e/h/hi/history_of_the_jews_in_russia_and_the_soviet_union.htm â€Å"Jews and Communism†. March of the Titans.Ostra Publication. 1999. 6 April 2007          http://www.white-history.com/hwr61iii.htm Khadish, Sharman â€Å"Bolsheviks and British Jews†Frank Cass Publishers 1992 Rivera,David,â€Å"Final Warning: A history of the New World order†Modernhistoryproject.org          http://www.modernhistoryproject.org/mhp/ArticleDisplay.php?Article=FinalWarning Russia 1905-1945.Redruth School.2006.7 April.2007           http://www.redruth.cornwall.sch.uk/content/departments/history/gcse/russia/Russia1905- htm â€Å"Russia 1917-41†Greenfield History Site 18 March 2007.5 April2007            http://johndclare.net/Basic Russia.htm â€Å"Socialism and Jews†. Information service.Diapositive. Adam Mickiewicz Institute 8 April2007       http://www.diapozytyw.pl/en/site/slownik_terminow/socjalizm_a_zydzi/ Solzhenitsyn, Alexander â€Å"Two Hundred years Together†ed.Mark Weber.2May 2003 Adelaide        Institute 8.April 2007 http://www.adelaideinstitute.org/Dissenters/weber.htm Spiro, Ken .The Czars and The Jews.†Jewish History 23 December 2001 Aish.com.8 April2007       http://www.aish.com/literacy/jewishhistory/Crash_Course_in_Jewish_History_Part_57_-         _The_Czars_and_the_Jews.asp â€Å"Suppressed Link-Jews and Communism.†March of Titans.1999 Ostra Publication 6 April 2007          http://www.white-history.com/hwr61.htm Sutton, Antony. â€Å"Wall street and the Bolshevik Revolution.†Studies in Reformed Theology2001             April 2007. http://reformed-theology.org/html/books/bolshevik_revolution/index.html â€Å"The Jews and Bolshevism†. Jew Watch. 2000 Jew Watch Library.8 April2007.          http://www.jewwatch.com/jew-genocide-USSRchristians-sexpeditionaryforces.html Weber, Mark. â€Å"The Jewish Role in Bolshevik Revolution and Russia’s Early Soviet Regime†            5 April 2007 http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v14/v14n1p-4_Weber.html
Thursday, September 5, 2019
The International Labour Organization Ilo
The International Labour Organization Ilo The International Labour Organization is a United Nations agency dealing with labour issues, particularly international labour standards and decent for all. There are 185 countries that are member states of International Labour Organization. The ILO aims to ensure that it serves the needs of working women and men by bringing together governments, employers and workers to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes. The very structure of the ILO, where workers and employers together have an equal voice with governments in its deliberations, shows social dialogue in action. It ensures that the views of the social partners are closely reflected in ILO labour standards, policies and programmes. They have concern about many issues which are happening in world. In this essay I selected child labour for further discussion. Child labour is a complex problem and numerous factors influence whether children work or not. Poverty emerges as the most compelling reason why children work. Poor households spend the bulk of their income on food and the income provided by working children is often critical to their survival. However, poverty is not the only factor in child labour and cannot justify all types of employment and servitude. Countries may be equally poor and yet have relatively high or relatively low levels of child labour. Child labour is clearly detrimental to individual children, preventing them from enjoying their childhood, hampering their development and sometimes causing lifelong physical or psychological damage; it is also detrimental to families, to communities and to society as a whole. As both a result and a cause of poverty, child labour perpetuates disadvantage and social exclusion. It undermines national development by keeping children out of school, preventing them from gaining the education and skills that would enable them as adults to contribute to economic growth and prosperity. As long as child labour continues, the ILOs goal of decent work can never be achieved. Discussion Millions of children worldwide are engaged in labour that is hindering their education, development and future livelihoods. A lot of of them are involved in the worst forms of child labour that because irreversible physical or psychological damage, or that even threaten their lives. This situation represents an intolerable violation of the rights of individual children, it perpetuates poverty and it compromises economic growth and equitable development. There are plenty of things can be happened to occur child labour. Factors include for Child labour: Barriers to education basic education is not free in all countries and is not always available for all children, especially in remote rural areas. Where schools are available, the quality of education can be poor and the content not relevant. In situations where education is not affordable or parents see no value in education, children are sent to work, rather than to school. Culture and tradition with few opportunities open to children with more education, parents are likely to share a cultural norm in which labour is seen as the most productive use of a childs time. Children are often expected to follow in their parents footsteps and are frequently summoned to help other members of the family, often at a young age. Market demand child labour is not accidental. Employers may prefer to hire children because they are cheaper than their adult counterparts, can be dispensed of easily if labour demands fluctuate and also form a docile, obedient work-force that will not seek to organize itself for protection and support. The effects of income shocks on households households that do not have the means to deal with income shocks, such as natural disasters, economic or agricultural crises Taking into consideration above factors the child labour will occur. This is a massive issue in modern world. Hence there are so many organizations and governments are consider this issue. Hence The ILO has given a priority to wipe out this issue. The International Labour Organization, from its setting up, has made child labour one of its central concerns. ILO work on child labour over the decades has mainly taken its indication from the phrase protection of children in the Preamble to its Constitution. The ILOs prime tool in pursuing the elimination of child labour has always been, and remains to this day, the labour standards that embody the concept of a minimum age to enter into employment. This approach responds to two concerns: to protect children from work that interferes with their full development and to pursue economic efficiency through well-functioning adult labour markets. Some child laborers are highly visible, such as street children working in the urban informal economy. Others, such as child domestic workers, are effectively hidden from public view and are thus particularly vulnerable, including to physical, emotional and sexual abuse. Rather than working in formal sector establishments that produce for export, the majority of child labourers in manufacturing toil in supply chains producing for the domestic market, for example, in the production of fireworks, matches or incense sticks. A reported increase in home-based production of these and other goods, in response to heightened competitive pressures, brings with it an increased potential for exploitation of child labour. Such hidden groups of children present particular challenges for research and effective action. A future without child labour traces the ILOs historical concern with the abolition of child labour. At its very first session, the International Labour Conference adopted the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention, 1919 . Over the years that followed, the concept of minimum age for entry into employment was extended to different economic sectors, culminating with the adoption of the comprehensive Minimum Age Convention, 1973. The inclusion of the effective abolition of child labour in the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-up, adopted in 1988, highlighted the growing consensus across the world that child labour represents a serious threat to sustainable economic and social development everywhere. The unanimous adoption, the following year, of the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 , and its subsequent unprecedented rate of ratification, attest to the strength of the political will among ILO member States to tackle, with employers and wor kers organizations and all partners in civil society, these most extreme forms of child labour as a matter of the greatest urgency. Convention No. 182 has served to consolidate resolve on the need for immediate action to combat the worst forms of child labour, accompanied by measures to eliminate and prevent all child labour in the longer term. Drawing on the provisions of Conventions Nos. 138 and 182, they identify three categories of child labour to be eliminated: Labour performed by a child who is under a minimum age specified in national legislation for that kind of work. Labour that jeopardizes the physical, mental or moral well-being of a child, known as hazardous work The unconditional worst forms of child labour, which are internationally defined as slavery, trafficking, debt bondage and other forms of forced labour, forced recruitment for use in armed conflict, prostitution and pornography, and illicit activities. Furthermore they have taken several objectives to eliminate this child labor issue. Key objectives in the fight against child labour the long tradition of ILO standard setting and supervision in the field of child labour, dating from the very first session of the International Labour Conference in 1919 and leading up to the adoption of the umbrella Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138); The impetus given by the adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) in 1989; The experience gained by national governments working with IPEC; increased activism on child labour by employers and workers organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs); The unanimous adoption of the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182), and the subsequent campaign for its universal ratification and implementation; Research and action that have provided new insights into the causes, dimensions and means of reducing both poverty and child labour. According to the on top of objective the ILO have planned to eliminate child labor in every country. Although, when they erect new objectives and procedures they will have to concern countries policies. So that is a huge difficulty that they are appearance currently. Conclusion Childrens participation in the labour force at the start of the twenty-first century is continuously varied and infinitely volatile, responding to changing market and social conditions. This circumstance is matched by the flexibility of the large, unprotected, potential child labour force. Poverty and social exclusion, labour mobility, discrimination on the basis of sex and other grounds, and lack of adequate social protection and educational opportunity all come into play in influencing child labour outcomes. The ILO calls on all partners in this undertaking to redouble their efforts, to give all children, everywhere, the childhood and the future that they deserve.universal education and social protection, together with a better understanding of the needs and rights of children, can bring about a significant reduction in child labour. Recommendation Working closely with governments are the social partners employers and workers organizations who are uniquely placed to understand and to change the realities of the workplace so that child labour simply has no part to play. Partnerships operate horizontally at national level and also vertically between national, regional and international players. A worldwide movement, involving the ILOs constituents governments and employers and workers organizations and many other partners working together at international, national and local levels, has altered that irrevocably. Improve education system in every country. .
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Discovering a Culture through Magical Realism Essay -- Literature Essa
Discovering a Culture through Magical Realism    Every culture has a memorable type of literature. When one thinks of English literature, one thinks of William Shakespeare or Charles Dickens. The American writers Thoreau, Clemens, and Emerson bring to mind the days when America was still proving herself to be equal to the European countries. France had her own artists, such as Voltaire and Hugo, as did Spain with Cervantes and Dante. However, when one thinks of Latin America, what writers come to mind? Very few of these authors are as well known as those mentioned. However, through the concept of a previously unknown literature, the world is viewing Latin America in a new light. Magical Realism seems to have flourished in the warm, tropical climate and has bloomed so beautifully that scholars are at a loss to fully explain this concept and where it originated. Many opinions exist as to the true origins of Magical Realism. Flores has claimed that Borges, with his accomplished writings, began the movement. Flores also believes The Metamorphosis, written by Kafka, greatly influenced Borges, while other theories support Franz Roh as the source of this new movement. It seems the phrase was first coined by Roh while describing a new method of artwork in the 1920’s. This new artwork combined reality with a small addition of a nonrealistic aspect. For the most part, the general idea follows the theory of Roh’s creation. Each culture carves its own notch in the world of literature. America had to create her own new world of literature and still was criticized for not being like the other countries. It seems that when something is different, it is outcast and criticized to a much larger extent than should be. This situation... ... actually originated. The allure of this literature and the controversy concerning it will keep it on a steady rise in popularity through changing times because it is capable of change itself. Magical Realism reminds one of the beauty and the magic that can be found in everyday life. Works Cited Flores, Angel. â€Å"Magical Realism in Spanish American Fiction.†Magical Realism: Theory, History, Community. Ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris. Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1995: 109-117. Leal, Luis. â€Å"Magical Realism in Spanish American Literature.†Magical Realism: Theory, History, Community. Ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris. Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1995: 119-124. Roh, Franz. â€Å"Magical Realism: Post-Expressionism.†Magical Realism: Theory, History, Community. Ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris. Durham, N.C.: Duke UP, 1995: 15-31 Â
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Elduc In 2000 :: essays research papers
Eliduc In 2000 Sarah DeMoranville Prof. Gardner Ancient World Ren. Love in 20th century is entirely different from when Marie De France lived. In her time, she wrote a sweet story of two women who love the same man, Eliduc. He leaves his wife, Guildeluec to go fight in another country even though she is devastated by his decision. During his excursion he ends up with a younger woman named Guilliadun. The two fall madly in love. Ultimately, Guildeluec detects the affair and behaves with not a shread of jealousy or desire for revenge. The way she tells the story is surprisingly peaceful considering Eliduc lies to both women. However, my version of Eliduc, is written in 2000 mode. The society has metamorphosed into a chaotic blend of moral dysfunction. Many are unwilling to mend broken relationships. Instead, they choose to lie, cheat and deceive those who have been faithful and true to them. The repercussions of these betrayals are far more nauseating than Guildeluec’s reaction to Eliduc’s affair. Beware, if you loved Marie’s version this might be too intense for some readers. First, the names of the characters are a bit more modern than the monograms Marie used. Now, Eliduc is called Eli, Guildeluec is Gail and Guilliadun is Jill. Here is how the story goes in 2000. Eli and Gail were together all through high school. They eventually got married because their love had grown into a bond of true friendship and love. The two-shared happiness but Eli would focus the majority of his time on his career. Gail accepted Eli’s ambition and never really gave him trouble about it. She had enough to do between work and home. Besides, Eli was a good policeman. He always took pride in his work and the chief always favored him. He treated him special. One day Eli came home from work exasperated because some of the other guys on the force were jealous of Eli. He told Gail "they told the chief I sell and use drugs!" "I can’t believ e this, now the chief wants me gone." Gail said, "oh sweetheart, we can work this out. Things will be fine. We have enough money with my salary at the hospital to last us until the chief comes around. I could even ask some of the other nurses if I can pick up another shift" Eli answered, "I am going away for a while.
Monday, September 2, 2019
The Pastoral Ideal in Thomas Grays Elegy (Eulogy) Written in a Country
The Pastoral Ideal in Thomas Gray's Elegy (Eulogy) Written in a Country Churchyard Thomas Gray’s "Elegy Wrote in a Country Churchyard" portrays the pastoral ideal through many different images. The traditional pastoral notion of idyllic life changes in this poem to form a connection with people themselves. The speaker of this poem creates a process by which laborers come to symbolize the perfection of the pastoral through their daily toils. These people come to represent the ideal form of pastoral life. In this poem, however, Gray consigns these people and their lifestyle to darkness and death in order to save them from a world whose changing ideals support their idyllic lifestyle. This poem can be broken into four parts. These parts describe a kind of conversation between the speaker and the fading light of the traditional pastoral notion. The first part, ending around line 28, shows the ways in which the working people have integrated successfully into the pastoral lifestyle. The second, and longest part, ending around line 73, paints a portrait of an "urbanized pastoral" where people are no longer ignorant of their own potential, but strive to make changes in the world around them. Though this in itself is not necessarily negative, by desiring to change the world, the pastoral ideal of static bliss is directly challenged. The third section gives a kind of resolution to the situation by letting the pastoral tradition slide, safe and unmarred, into the comforting darkness of death. The opening stanza paints a portrait of the end of a day. The herds of farm animals walk away from the speaker to their home, just as a weary farmer "plods" (3) his way back home. All of these figures recede from the speaker into the appr... ... poet could the pastoral be kept alive. The speaker deals with this concept throughout "Elegy Wrote in a Country Church Yard." The "darkness" which is alluded to in the first stanza is the place the world has left the pastoral. As "The Plow-man homeward plods his weary Way," (3) he leaves behind the realm of the pastoral for the speaker to deal with. As society begins to turn its back from fanciful simplicity, towards commercial complexity, the poet’s duty falls to creating a place where the world of the pastoral is safe. For Gray, this is the darkness of death. This poem, however, does not create this "darkness" of death as an everlasting sleep. Rather, the importance of the pastoral is kept safe, and has the ability to influence generations of socially-influenced people that there is a world of peace and simplicity awaiting them, if they choose to look for it. Â
Sunday, September 1, 2019
“In the Heat of the Nightâ€Â; Movie or Book? Essay
â€Å"In The Heat of the Night†is a gripping murder mystery story that incorporates a major issue of the time it was written at; racism. The original novel (published in 1965), written by John Ball, is a story of Virgil Tibbs, a Negro homicide investigator. The death of orchestra-conductor Enrico Mantoli and a series of other events lead up to him in charge of a murder investigation in Wells, Carolina. This is much to the dismay of Bill Gillespie, the extremely prejudice police chief. The movie version (released in 1967), also features Mr. Tibbs as the leader of a murder investigation. However, the setting is Sparta, Mississippi, and the victim is Philip Colbert, a man planning to build a factory in the town. The movie was very successful, and proceeded to win 5 Academy Awards. Despite this, I find the book is more appealing because the characters are easier to relate to, and have a chance to get well-rounded in a gradual sense. In addition, the plot development steadily makes progress, and is overall less tense, therefore more enjoyable. Both movie and book, however, are quite impressive in the incorporation of racial equality issues, and should equally be recognized as landmarks in American media for this reason. The most prominent change in characters is the personality of Virgil Tibbs. â€Å"Instead of being stretched out on the bench, he was wide awake and sitting up straight as though he were expecting something to happen. His coat was off and laid neatly beside him. He had been reading a paperback book up to the moment Sam entered†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Pg. 15) This is almost identical to the scene where we are introduced to Virgil in the movie. However, the quick-thinking, cold and intense version to be seen later on in the movie was very surprising. The humble, clever and cool homicide investigator from the novel is much preferred. His collected manners also make it all the more enjoyable when seeing Gillespie’s frustration at the Negro’s wits, and all the more heart warming as Sam Wood and Virgil Tibbs start to open up to one another. Also, the movie somewhat exaggerated on Mr. Endicott as being a â€Å"bad guy†. From being somewhat a pest, however definitely not on anyone’s ‘bad books’, too being a plantation owner who sends a group of thugs to beat up Virgil is just ludicrous. It seems he is used as an excuse to bring out another foe, another bit of action to make the movie more exciting. The subtle mystery of not knowing who is â€Å"bad†or â€Å"good†in the novel is a lot more satisfying, perhaps even more once you find out who the real murderer was. The movie, at a full running time of 109 minutes, has quite an exciting plot, with slow parts and exciting action parts. It incorporates many essential things to the original story of ‘In the Heat of the Night’, (such as the association with Delores Purdy) however it differs quite a bit as well. As mentioned above, the setting is in Sparta, Mississippi, where Philip Colbert, planning to build a factory in this town, is murdered. This change of plot on its own removes something that could be considered essential to the plot; romance. The budding relationship between Duena, Enrico Mantoli’s daughter (who doesn’t show up what so ever, seeing as Enrico Mantoli was not the victim) and Officer Sam Wood adds a bit of ‘spice’ that is lacking in the movie. On the topic of Sam Wood, his character being a relatively minor one sets a rather different way of looking at his character. In the book, the reader gets a closer glimpse on Sam Wood’s life, and gets to enjoy his personality and forgiving character more so then the movie. As a result of this, when Sam Wood is suspected of murder, we feel all the more protest and frustration for Gillespie to even dream of this possibility. The movie makes us feel bad for Sam, as it is pretty obvious he is not guilty if Virgil says he is not, but this emotion is lacking compared to the feelings the book inflicts. However, I do prefer the ending of the movie to the book. Instead of the gallant statements of how Bill Gillespie respects Virgil Tibbs as a human, are rather out-there, (if not heart-warming, I have to admit†¦) while the simple good-bye of the movie shows on its own how Gillespie has come to admire and respect Virgil. ‘In the Heat of the Night’, movie or book alike, is an inspiring tale of overcoming prejudice in the backward, racist town in the south- eastern United States. In both forms of media, we see from beginning to end the trials and prejudice thrown at Virgil Tibbs, solely because he is coloured. The inhuman way of dealing with racial hate is disgusting. Virgil Tibbs, however, is always cool and collected, and is an admirable character that will be remembered by everyone who reads or watches ‘In the Heat of the Night’. In being mocked for having a classy name such as ‘Virgil’, and asked what he’s called where he comes from, he responds with the famous line, â€Å"They call me Mister Tibbs.†(pg. 36) This line is present in both film and book, a demanding statement of racial equality that sticks in the reader’s mind. By comparing and contrasting the similarities and differences, it shows that the characters were more subtle and realistic than the movie’s stereotypical good guys and bad guys. Also, the plot of the book was better thought-out, and had many other enjoyable subplots that were lacking in the movie. Through his short stay in Wells, Carolina (or Sparta, Mississippi) Tibbs may not have altered the town’s views on discrimination against blacks, but John Ball left a definite strong imprint about social equality, and in doing so left more questions about human and social behaviour for the reader than simple answers.
Developments in transportation Essay
Developments in transportation, rather than in manufacturing and agriculture, sparked American growth in the first half of the 19th century; moreover, it was the booming railroad industry, the country massive turnpikes, and the canals promoting water travel that sparked American growth in the first half of the 19th century. Railroads had been in the making for years, and they just kept improving, thus improving the ease of news spread and travel throughout the United States. The turnpikes going from city to city brought ease in trading goods and transportation. In addition, the canals, such as the Erie Canal, promoted the thought of water travel leading to many key inventions and vehicles. Although developments in manufacturing and agriculture had a profound effect upon American economic growth in the first half of the nineteenth century, developments in transportation had a larger effect, as well as serving as the catalyst for the developments in manufacturing and agriculture. Railroads made the west accessible. They encouraged the migration and settlement of the western United States. Because of the railroads assisting people in moving out west, a need formed for new agricultural methods and tools to farm in the new environment. The Gold Rush in California only grew so popular due to the railroads bringing ease of travel to people heading out west. The Railroad industry also opened up the western areas of the United States to business, industry, and trade. It continued to influence developments of industry, so more products could be made, shipped, and sold. The railroad system also created the demand for new modes of communication, such as the telegraph, because there was more distance to cover, thus opening a whole new market in the communication industry. One of the most important achievements the railroad’s brought to the United States was the introduction of time zones to accommodate for the inter-state trade. By 1820, turnpikes connected almost all major cities in the United States. They facilitated trade between areas of the country that were previously isolated, thus raising the economy in certain places. Turnpikes also provide a quicker and easier mode of transportation for people, therefore helping to decrease the standard of economic self-sufficiency. This meant people were less likely to be stuck growing their own food, making their own clothes, etc. because they now had a much easier trip to town where they could buy these goods. Canals became popular from about 1815-1840. The most famous canal was the Erie Canal. It opened an inexpensive and quick way to travel from the east to the west. Before the Erie Canal only the east coast had been readily accessible by water. Canals promoted trade between the eastern and western regions, sparking industrial development in the formerly farm-oriented west. Canals made New York City a major trade center. They allowed New York to prosper and continue to grow as an industrial powerhouse, creating more jobs and factories. This is what gave New York the advantage over cities like Baltimore and Philadelphia. The canals also promoted the development of the steamship, created first by Robert Fulton. All in all, the statement, â€Å"developments in transportation, rather than in manufacturing and agriculture, sparked American growth in the first half of the 19th century†is a valid statement. The advancements made in transportation is what led to the advancements made in manufacturing and agriculture. If it weren’t for the railroads, turnpikes, and canals, most of the manufacturing and agriculture developments would not have been made, and America would have been stuck in the past.
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